The most effective disinformation is 90% true. A genuine scandal, a real leaked email, or a legitimate atrocity is wrapped inside a false narrative. The victim, when they protest, is forced to deny everything — including the true part — which makes them look like a liar.

You cannot hide the truth if you simply suppress it; people will notice. Instead, release so much contradictory, semi-true, and trivial information that the truth drowns in noise. By the time a fact-check is published, the audience has already moved on to the next scandal.

If you are rigging an election, accuse your opponent of rigging the election. If you are using bots, publish reports about the other side using bots. Volkoff notes that mirroring works because it exploits the human desire for false symmetry (“both sides are the same”).

(1932–2005) was a paradox: a former counter-intelligence officer for French military intelligence, a devout Christian, and a literary academic. His 1999 work, Traité de désinformation ( Treatise on Disinformation ), is not a step-by-step guide for propaganda ministers. Rather, it is a philosophical and tactical dissection of how information is systematically corrupted to destroy a target without firing a shot.